On June 2, 1924, the United States Congress passed the Indian Citizenship Act. Many Americans lobbied and advocated for this legislation, which finally granted Native Americans United States citizenship. One of these people, Zitkála-Šá, had an important Utah connection, and her story shows how citizens can build positive civic change in unexpected and creative ways.
Who was Zitkála-Šá ?
Born Gertrude Simmons on the Dakota Plains in 1876, Zitkála-Šá lived through the Plains Indian Wars and the boarding school era. While attending a Quaker-run boarding school in Wabash, Indiana, she was forced to assimilate by cutting her hair and not speaking her native language. Despite this, Zitkála-Šá enjoyed writing, reading and music at the school. She went on to train as a violinist at the New England Conservatory of Music.
When Zitkála-Šá returned to South Dakota, she married Raymond Bonnin. Together they moved to Utah to work for the Indian Bureau (now known as the Bureau of Indian Affairs) on the Uintah and Ouray Reservation. Zitkála-Šá found community with local Ute women through sewing, cooking, and having musical gatherings. This led to a partnership with Brigham Young University music Professor William Hanson to write The Sun Dance Opera. Based on sacred Sioux rituals and songs, this opera helped preserve and share Native American rituals at a time when they were largely prohibited during an era of assimilation.
American Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
Zitkála-Šá and her husband moved to Washington D.C. after fourteen years in Utah. While in D.C., she worked as a magazine writer for the Society of American Indians. She used her voice to talk about her experiences in a boarding school and on the reservation in Utah. Through her writings, she also campaigned for citizenship for American Indians, especially those who had served in the military. In 1924, the American Indian Citizenship Act was passed.
This act allowed Native Americans to access benefits and governmental services as U.S. citizens. Additionally the federal government invested more in health care, education, and infrastructure for Native Americans. Although the Indian Citizenship Act did not guarantee voting rights, which were governed by state law, gaining U.S. citizenship provided a pathway for Native Americans to lay claim to suffrage rights. Utah removed laws preventing Native Americans from registering to vote in 1957.
Civic Task: There are many ways you can exercise your civic responsibilities. But one unexpected way is through creative expression. Zitkála-Šá used her talents as a writer and musician to enact political and social change. You can also use artistic expression to draw attention to things that matter to you. This has long been a tradition in American civics, from women’s suffrage quilting bees to protest songs during the Civil Rights movement. People throughout U.S. history have used their creativity to share their voice and build community. This Civic Season, how can you use your creativity to help your community?
Further Reading
Hafen, P. Jane. “Zitkála-Šá, The Red Bird Activist: 1876-1938.” Utah Women’s History – Better Days. Accessed March 27, 2025. https://utahwomenshistory.org/the-women/zitkala-sa/.
Zitkala-ša (1876–1938): Sun Dance Opera. Research Guides. https://guides.lib.byu.edu/c.php?g=1378810&p=10253780
Sources
1. Chen, Nicole. “Zitkála-Šá: On Creativity, Copyright, and Cultural Empowerment | Copyright.” Webpage. The Library of Congress, March 31, 2021. https://blogs.loc.gov/copyright/2021/03/zitkla-on-creativity-copyright-and-cultural-empowerment.
2. Library of Congress: Today in History. “June 2: Indian Citizenship Act.” Web page. Accessed March 28, 2025. https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/june-02/.
3. Corbett, Sarah, and Sarah Housley. “The Craftivist Collective Guide to Craftivism.” Utopian Studies 22, no. 2 (2011): 344–51. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/2/article/451899/summary.